Possible risks Essay

Determination of pregnancy is not certain until the second trimester, at around twenty weeks, when the fetal heart beat can be heard via a fetoscope. Albeit there are presumptive and probable signs associated with pregnancy, like the early morning sickness or the growing size of the abdominal area, these could also be caused by a different pathology. Hence, it can be inevitable for a woman who is not aware of her pregnant state to be exposed to radiation, most especially if she is not aware of her current menstruation cycle. Radiation exposure usually occurs whenever a person is exposed to cosmic rays, external radiation from radioactive ores, internal exposure through radiation therapy given for treatment in cancer patients, and most commonly through diagnostic x-rays. More often than not, pregnant women who are not aware of their pregnant state could have gotten their diagnostic x-rays taken, which is equivalent to receiving 70 millirem. Also, she could have been exposed to other radiation sources, like watching the television and living next door to a power plant. But exposure to radiation can have an acceptable limit of 350 millirems for the pregnant woman. For the pregnant woman, the most critical period wherein the fetus will suffer the most health consequences is when the she is exposed to radiation around two weeks to fifteen weeks gestational age. At two weeks gestational age, if the mother is exposed to a radiation that measures greater than 5 rad or 5000 millirem, a miscarriage can take place or even death inside the womb. If the fetus is exposed to radiation at the gestational age of eight to fifteen weeks, the fetus is to suffer a severe brain damage from the exposure. This can result in lowered intelligent quotients or IQs, mental retardation, stunted growth and other birth defects. Mental retardation is defined as a general developmental disorder characterized by a lower than average intelligence marker and the child is to suffer from limited daily living skills due to limited learning capabilities. Stunted growth in a child will be evidenced by a sluggish growth and development progress, as evidenced by a lower than normal height, weight and even cognitive skills. After this critical period, the two to fifteen weeks of gestational age, the fetus will unlikely suffer from radiation exposure, unless the exposure is extremely large. Only having been exposed to at least five thousand x-rays at one time can give harm to a 16 week old fetus. At 26 weeks gestational age, the fetus cannot be harmed by radiation exposure, and if ever exposed to radiation, the fetus will unlikely suffer serious health consequences. This can be compared to a newborn being exposed to radiation; the chances of having defects are greatly decreased if not invisible already. However, some of the effects of being exposed to radiation cannot readily be seen or manifest in the early life. Studies also show that fetuses are extremely sensitive to the cancer causing effects of radiation exposure; hence this can increase their risks in acquiring cancer later in life. Radiation exposure can be limited, if not avoided. The pregnant woman needs to be aware of her physiological state. She would have to consult all of her diagnostic exams and her workplace to her physician, so that radiation exposure can be prevented early on the pregnancy.

Issuing the Draft Essay

In response to the first argument in favor of volunteer enlistment, I would counter that the overall effect would continue to support the status quo in that privileged and wealthy Americans would not have an urgent need to enlist. Due to this economic division between classes, the lower class sector would continue to be the majority of soldiers because of a lack of better options in civilian society. In this general sense the moral of the ‘volunteer’ would not increase but would remain either indifferent or resentful. Making the draft mandatory could be seen as an equalizing force that supports the doctrine that ‘all men are created equal,’ whether or not that be the case. Response to second argument: Responding to the second argument against the draft due to the lack of funding by the part of the government, I would contend that the volunteering aspect would cut the overall size of the military because of the negative perspective that the government is mis-appropriating their funds. If this were the case, volunteers would feel no urgent necessity to enlist because they would feel their efforts would not be recognized or supported sufficiently enough to warrant such a life changing decision. Although I agree that volunteers who join causes they believe in will ultimately perform with more vigor, in this case the moral boost would be ever-vanishing.

Early Modern Athens and Early Travellers to Greece Essay

Early Modern Athens and Early Travellers to Greece - Essay Example Since its formation in the Mycenaean Period, there have been several different civilizations that have brought new changes and new eras to the Athenian and Greek society as a whole. Each new era ushered in important societal changes that brought differing levels of modernization to the city as Greece continued to grow in importance throughout Europe and eastern civilizations. Though unified under a single ruler for many centuries, Greece not once in its long history ever unite all of its city-states to form what we now recognize as a nation until modern times (Wilson). In ancient Greece, each city-state was placed under a ruler as a territory who was governed by the emperor or king with no other unity among them. The people could relate to one another through their culture. For example, they all spoke the same language and worshipped the same gods, though they did not recognize themselves as belonging to the same union (Constantine). The ideals of a united Greek society began under t he rule of Phillip of Macedon and ended when the empire was pulled apart after the death of his son, Alexander, in 323 B.C. The Hellenic ideal of a united empire began in 338 B.C. with the Battle of Chaeronea, where Athens fell to the invading Macedonian king, Phillip (Constantine). It was after this battle that the city-states, most notably including Athens, lost their independence, eventually leading toward the unification of the Greek territories. This marked an important milestone in Greek history as Phillip of Macedon defeated the Persians, thus freeing the Greek people from slavery. Phillip ushered in the Classical Age of Greece, a time marked both by war and significant literary and cultural advances to the Greek society. His ideals of a Hellenic Greece were spread by his son, Alexander the Great, who took the throne in 336 B.C. Phillip also brought with him a new ruling class of Greeks, the Macedonians (Martin). The strength of their armies and their immense wealth set the Macedonians apart from the other Greek races. Their superiority in education and military expertise set the stage for the con quests of Alexander the Great. Alexander and his armies spread the ideals of a united Greek empire as they set out and conquered the Persians, India, and parts of Asia within a seven year period. The young ruler's goal was to spread the Greek empire to the sea, believing that in reaching the ocean he would reach the edge of the world. In each conquered land, Alexander set up new Greek cities, promoting them as centers of culture and civilization. He spread the Greek language into Asia, making it the predominant language of trade at the time. During the rule of Alexander, Athens lost its place as a dominant city in the empire (Martin). Alexander's new cultural cities were designed to enhance the education of the people, particularly in the sciences, as well as to end the Macedonian racial views of the supposed barbarians who occupied the lands to the east. The growing importance of these new cities as cultural centers left Athens obsolete in the new empire. The city still retained its importance as a wealthy learni ng center. Alexander passed away suddenly in 323 B.C. before his dream was realized. The true beginning of the Hellenic period in Greek history is marked with the

Majority Rule and Minority Rights in American Government Essay

Majority Rule and Minority Rights in American Government - Essay Example 3). Indeed, there are several places in the Constitution where suspicion of unchecked majority power is evident - from the Bill of Rights to the structure of the Senate to the Electoral College. To be sure, some historical events that ran relatively concurrent with the birth of the United States, primarily the French Revolution and its associated "Reign of Terror," provided ample illustration of the potential for majority rule to degenerate into mob rule. Majority rule means a system of government in which the will of the majority if given full force and effect within the laws and regulations of the country. It is, essentially, a pure democracy. Minority rights are those liberties and privileges that naturally accrue toward those who do not necessarily agree with the will of the majority. The latter rights have been associated with the concepts of natural law and human rights, whereby those in the minority deserve to be treated with a certain minimum level of dignity and respect simply because they are humans and citizens of the country that acknowledges and respects those natural rights. In his seminal work On Liberty, John Stuart Mill lays his doctrine of the right of individuals to act in any way they choose so long as it does not interfere with the freedom of others. This notion of liberty is essential to minority rights in a democracy. Democracy in the United States In many ways, the United States Constitution does not really set up a majority rule system - that is, it is not a true democracy. A close evaluation of the various branches of government reveals that the only body that is designed to be truly responsive to the will of the majority is the House of Representatives, established under Article 1 of the Constitution. The President is not even directly elected by the people under Article 2 of the Constitution; the Senate's lengthy six year terms arguably insulate its members from the whim of the majority (Article 1); and members of the Supreme Court, where the buck truly stops on how Americans are governed, are appointed for life by this President and Senate that are buffered from the will of the majority (Article 3). Moreover, the Constitution established a federal system in which the states retain substantial sovereignty in nearly all matters of government, greatly limiting the extent to which the central government of the U.S. has the power to impose the will of the national majority. The 10th Amendment states that all powers not specifically enumerated within the Constitution as belonging to the federal government are reserved to the states. Thus, it is necessary that some specific provision of the Constitution grants authority to the federal government in order for it to legally regulate any given area. In that vein, the commerce clause, granting to the federal government the power to regulate interstate commerce, has often been heavily relied upon to justify laws enacted by Congress. This has come to the great chagrin of many strict constructionists, who have protested the Supreme Court's invoking of the commerce clause to uphold the legality of many federal laws that have had a connection t o interstate commerce that is tenuous at best. The effects of these severe

Research on HIV Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research on HIV - Assignment Example The refusal of HIV patients to face their illness is also another critical factor influencing the responses of people towards HIV patients and towards nurses being involved in the treatment of HIV. Statement of the Research Problem Current study focuses on the following research problem: Which has been the involvement of nurses in Mississippi delta in the treatment and the control of HIV among the local population. Purpose of the Study The study aims to show the potential value of nurses in controlling the expansion of HIV in Mississippi delta. At the same time, the study aims to show whether nurses can contribute in the improvement of treatment provided to people suffering from HIV. Other issues, such as the effectiveness of current policies would be tested using appropriate findings. Theoretical Framework The control of HIV in Mississippi delta, as also in other regions, is quite problematic mostly because local nurses are not able to face the needs of patients, who are continuousl y increased. Still, the measures taken by the state for the confrontation of HIV can be characterized as ineffective mostly because they do not refer to certain issues that are critical in terms of diseases’ expansion not only in Mississippi delta but also worldwide. ... Another research has revealed that the expansion of HIV in the Southern regions of America is highly related to the lack of education in regard to the implications and the consequences of the particular disease (Sternberg & Gillum 2011). The rapid expansion of HIV in South America can be made clear through the following fact: in 2005 the rate of HIV expansion in Mississippi Delta has been found to be high, about 28.0 per 100,000 (Rural America 2012). It has been also proved that the problems related to the access in HIV treatment are higher in rural areas of Southern America, compared to other regions of the particular country (Rural America 2012). Research Questions The study aims to provide appropriate answers to the following questions: A) which has been the role of nurses in the control of the expansion of HIV in Mississippi delta? B) Which are the challenges that nurses working in the above region have to face when being involved in the treatment of HIV? C) Which are the current trends in regard to the control and the treatment of HIV in the specific region? D) Which are the key practices used by nurses in Mississippi delta for managing cases of patients suffering from HIV? Assumptions It has been made clear that nurses can highly affect the control of HIV in Mississippi delta. Moreover, nurses can contribute in the improvement of existing policies, related to the control of HIV, not only in Mississippi but also globally. The research developed for this paper has revealed that the treatment of HIV can have a series of implications that need to be taken into consideration before starting such plan. Significance of Study As already explained,

Management and personal development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Management and personal development - Essay Example This research will begin with the MBTI types. The MBTI Inventory measure personal across FOUR dimensions: Introvert [I] - Extrovert [E]; Intuition [N] - Sensing [S]; Feeling [F] - Thinking [T]; Perception [P] - Judging [J]. ISTJ: Serious, quiet, earn success by concentration and thoroughness. Practical, orderly, matter of fact, logical, realistic and dependable. See to it that everything is well organized. Take responsibility. Make up their own minds about what should be accomplished and work towards it steadily, regardless of protests or distractions. ISFJ: Quiet, friendly, responsible and conscientious. Work devotedly to meet their obligations. Lend stability to any project or group. Thorough, painstaking, accurate. Their interests are usually not technical. Can be patient with necessary details. Loyal, considerate, perceptive, concerned with how other people feel. INFJ: Succeed by perseverance, originality, and desire to do whatever is needed or wanted. Put their best efforts into their work. Quietly forceful, conscientious, concerned for others. Respected for their firm principles. Likely to be honored and followed for their clear visions as to how best to serve the common good. INTJ: Have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. Have a long-range vision and quickly find meaningful patterns in external events. In fields that appeal to them, they have a fine power to organize a job and carry it through. Sceptical, critical, independent, determined, have high standards of competence and performance.  ... MBTI TYPES ISTJ Serious, quiet, earn success by concentration and thoroughness. Practical, orderly, matter of fact, logical, realistic and dependable. See to it that everything is well organised. Take responsibility. Make up their own minds about what should be accomplished and work towards it steadily, regardless of protests or distractions. ISFJ Quiet, friendly, responsible and conscientious. Work devotedly to meet their obligations. Lend stability to any project or group. Thorough, painstaking, accurate. Their interests are usually not technical. Can be patient with necessary details. Loyal, considerate, perceptive, concerned with how other people feel. INFJ Succeed by perseverance, originality and desire to do whatever is needed or wanted. Put their best efforts into their work. Quietly forceful, conscientious, concerned for others. Respected for their firm principles. Likely to be honoured and followed for their clear visions as to how best to serve the common good. INTJ Have or iginal minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. Have long-range vision and quickly find meaningful patterns in external events. In fields that appeal to them, they have a fine power to organise a job and carry it through. Sceptical, critical, independent, determined, have high standards of competence and performance. ISTP Cool onlookers – quiet, reserved, observing and analysing life with detached curiosity and unexpected flashes of original humour. Usually interested in cause and effect, how and why mechanical things work and in organising facts using logical principles. Excel at getting to the core of a practical problem and finding the solution. ISFP Retiring, quietly friendly, sensitive,

The Christians creation story Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Christians creation story - Coursework Example The Heart-of-Sky was responsible for the creation process in the Popul Vuh as was God for the Christians. The creation process for the two stories was made into a reality through the uttering of words. The creation of the human beings was done in collaboration with other parties as it is the case in the two stories. In both stories, the supernatural being is at some point angered by the actions of the human being is chronological and God creates day and night on the first day. According to the Popul Vuh, the Heart-of-Sky separated the sky from the earth on the first day. In the Creation story, God’s attempt of creating the human being was not a failure like stated in the Popul Vuh. In the Popul Vuh, the Heart-of-Sky only created humans to serve him, but in the Christians creation story, God created humans to rule over other animals and fill the world. The Popul Vuh illustrates a rebellion of other animals and creations against the humans which is not stated in the Christians c reation story. When Olurun noticed that the land of Olukum was filled with water, and there was a need to fill it with the land, he told Obata of this idea. Obata took up the challenge that he would undertake the requirements of creating that land. Obata approached Orunmila, who gave him a couple of instructions, to be followed by the creation of land, to cover the sea. He would go down into the sea using a chain made of gold. With him, he should have a shell filled with sand, a white hen that will help disperse the sand.

Handwashing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Handwashing - Essay Example The level of the target audience also influences the teaching plan. There are varied formats of teaching plans, below is a formal teaching plan regarding environmental issues. The time allowed should be indicated in the plan. This facilitates management of time and ensuring maximum utilization of the allocated and extra time. The time factor is important in formulating the entire teaching plan. In creation of a realistic timeline of the plan the following strategic points should be considered. The list of required materials should include materials that should aid the teacher in explaining the topic. Materials to be used may include illustration charts showing graphical explanations about environmental issues affecting the community. Short films can also be used to explain through visual and audio recordings of the topic. The plan should include various categories of objectives. Behavioral objectives are the things the community or the targeted audience should be able to do at the end of the lesson(s).knowledge objectives includes what the community or students have learnt about environmental issues. The tutor should formulate a test to gauge the amount of information acquire by his/her audience. The objectives are guided by the following questions; The instructional component of the plan includes sequence of events that builds the environmental issues lesson. This includes the tutor’s own instructions about the topic under discussion. Introduction of this section can be through questions to gauge the understanding of the community about issues affecting the environment. The plan ought to include independent practices for the community to extend their skills in the environmental field of study. The practices may vary according to the demographics of the community’s setup. They may include practical lessons on preventing environmental degradations amongst other issues. The summary of the plan

A Customer who Has Language Barrier that Someone Has Trouble Understan Essay

A Customer who Has Language Barrier that Someone Has Trouble Understanding English - Essay Example This would forge loyal following among its customers who are foreign speakers many of which are big spenders. Customer service can also be easily facilitated if reps can understand the language of the customer. For the customers, this would be a wonderful experience for them to be truly understood by the store where they make their purchases. This would surely develop a strong following among the foreign segment of the market. 3. Include cultural sensitivity training to front liners. There is a significant portion of Macy’s customers who are of foreign origin like me. This would tremendously improve their customer interaction and ultimately customer satisfaction leading to repeat and loyal customers. This would also separate Macy’s from the competition is a more customer-oriented retail store. Macy would also have the benefit of widening its customer base to include foreigners and international students like me. Describe insights you gained by carrying out this ‘shopping trip’ under the consumer role you adopted. What occurred to you that you’ve never thought about before? How do these insights affect the way you think about consumer behaviors and serving consumer markets? Besides the shopper with the specific situation you were assigned, who else might benefit from changes to a store that would better accommodate that kind of shopper? This trip made me realized that customer service is, in fact, a science that retail stores spend time, money and effort to become good at. Reflecting on it, I understand why because if the product and price are the same or even slightly higher, I would tend to buy at the store where I was taken good cared of or had the better customer experience. The store would also benefit from this experience as customers become more conscious of their shopping experience and are likely to provide feedback which could help them improve their products and service.

Adults Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Adults - Essay Example He says that aphasia is a disorder that results from damage of parts of the brain that are coordinating language. He further adds that it affects both the young children and adults but emphasizes that it is very common among the older adults. The SLP tells me that aphasia is caused by the damage of the dominant part of the brain that controls most aspects of language. He says that the part of brain that is damaged by aphasia is the left hemisphere. After the brief explanation from the SLP, I went further to interview him about Sarah whom he met earlier having aphasia disorder. According to the SLP, Sarah, 29 years old had aphasia disorder. Before doing anything to her, he welcomed her to sit on a chair at his therapy room. The room was private hence there was no interruption from outside. Then, the SLP explains that he tried to create a rapport with Sarah asking her three general questions about her home, the current activities and her wellbeing. First, the speech-language pathologists established an ongoing relationship with Sarah and her family to provide security and reassurance through good rapport and trust. He adds that Sarah understood and communicated in English very well and that was the language used during their interaction. Just before the SLP could begin his therapy on Sarah, he assured her of the confidentiality of her therapy session and requested her to feel free to respond to his questions regarding her health. The SLP told Sarah that he uses codes in his therapy work to keep the secrets of her work. He also used codes to represent the wo rds expressed by Sarah. In their interaction, the SLP used memos to ensure that the emerging theories supported Sarah’s views about her condition. At the time of coding, the SLP made the memos regarding the relationship between codes. Coding involved the identification of codes using phrases, sentences, and words from their interaction

Dramatic Climax Essay Example for Free

Dramatic Climax Essay How Does Miller Create Interest in Act Three, the Dramatic Climax Of The Crucible?  In Act Three of Arthur Millers The Crucible, tension rises in the courtroom of Salem as John Proctor, Giles and Francis strive to save the lives and respect of their wives. As the trials progress, the audience concentrate more on certain individuals and how they struggle to maintain power and authority in the courtroom. Miller called his play The Crucible because a crucible is a container in which metals are heated to extract the pure element from dross or impurities. In Act 3, John Proctor is tested in a life threatening ordeal and his choice of death rather than betrayal of his conscience shows us that he too has come through the fire to be purified. This creates interest because the comparison of Proctors situation and going through fire to be purified is powerful. Going through fire emphasises on the pain he must suffer. The audience sympathise for his pain and suffering and so they are interested in Act 3 to see the consequences of the dramatic climax. The main focus of Act 3 has to do with determining who will define innocence and guilt. Proctor makes one audacious gamble for this authority by finally overcoming his desire to protect his reputation, exposing an inner secret sin. He hopes to replace his wifes blame with his own guilt and bring Abigail down as well in the process. He reveals his private life to examination, hoping to gain some authority, but he does not realise that the competition is high, people may show more energy in the delivery and presentation of their speech. Too many reputations are at stake and Proctors surprise comes too late to stop the avalanche. This also creates interest as Proctor is the protagonist who the audience are encouraged to focus on and sympathise with. Proctor making this audacious gamble interests the audience, builds up to whatever the outcome may be, the dramatic climax. Desperation and persuasion are emotions involved within this act. There is a great deal of climax and suspense displayed using many different dramatic devices. Dramatic devices are made to engender interest in the audience. The dramatic devices present in this act seem to follow an order of operation, of starting with the least dramatic to the most dramatic. As more devices build up, more interest is likely to develop. The development of interest is then switched to the climax (turning point). The act starts with a common device such as character interaction. Character interaction in Act 3 set in a courtroom is a lot different to usual character interaction:  GILES (beginning to plead): They be tellin lies about my wife, sir, I-  DANFORTH Do you take it upon yourself to determine what this court shall believe and what it shall set aside?  GILES Your Excellency, we mean no disrespect for-  DANFORTH Disrespect indeed! It is disruption, Mister. This is the highest court of the supreme government of this province, do you know it? The fact that Giles is cut off by Danforth before even managing to finish his sentence, shows that more power is on Danforths side whilst Giles is beginning to plead for freedom. It also shows that the pace of speech may be very quick as everyone is determined to get their message across. The effect that this gives is that questions and quick speeches build up suspense for answers. Also, Danforth interrogating Giles shows his authority and possession of power over him. The interrogation can also be seen as a dramatic device, it creates interest with the audience waiting for answers to the questions. Another dramatic device is the use of vocal variety. When characters interact in a different way of speech, it shows there is a change of behaviour. It grabs the attention and suspense of the audience and makes them wonder to where this may lead to. An example:  GILES VOICE (roaring) I have evidence for the court!  As Giles is roaring, there is a great sense of energy in Giles voice, as if he were roaring like a lion. This contributes to the idea of getting the message across to the rest of the court members and the energy makes the audience feel more alert, just like a lion would. This makes the situation more interesting as roaring isnt usually how Giles would react, so the audience are interested to know where the roaring would lead to. In Act 3, based on the courtroom scene, body language, gestures and even facial expressions play a key role of grabbing the audiences interest. These factors reveal the characters personalities depending on what their actions are like. If a characters actions are more open and broad, it may suggest that they are more confident and powerful. However, if a characters actions are reserved and tightened, it may suggest that they are under-confident and weaker:  PARRIS (sweating): These people should be summoned. (DANFORTH looks up at him questioningly.) For questioning. As Parris is sweating, this shows that he is anxious about his decision of the people being summoned, but then gains back his confidence when Danforth looks up at him, so he answers back at Danforths questioningly look. This interests the audience as there is a change of behaviour within a character.  Characters are at their upmost desperation for innocence and reputation, the matter of what is at stake and how do characters react really indulges itself into the drama. Death is at stake and characters are becoming more and more desperate progressing through the scene. Since the storyline is based upon witch hunting in Salem, the girls who are shown to be witches act out in an eccentric manner. The hysteria of the girls is shown dramatic as it displays what separates the sane from the insane and really engages the interest of the audience. Being set in a courtroom would mean that character interaction is shown from all angles. There is power to be shifted from someone who is higher in authority, and has more arguments to clear themselves from any kind misjudgement to someone who is unable yet desperate to defend themselves.

Compare Mass Market And Niche Market Marketing Essay

Compare Mass Market And Niche Market Marketing Essay Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individual to achieve a common goal. A process is an exchange going on between the leader and followers. Leadership has been described as the process of social influence can be assigned formally and informally but it must exist and a group of individuals to achieve a common goal, A leader  is not  the boss of  the team,  but on the contrary, that  efforts to carry out  the  business  mission.  A leader  is to create  a team  of other members  that  actively participate  in the process  of environmental. Academics have great difficulty in defining what a leader is, or pinpointing the reasons behind an organisations success. Leadership is widely recognised. Otherwise why would nations have decided to follow leaders such as Mahatma Ghandi and Nelson Mandela, both of whom started out on their respective journeys without any formal authority? Some leaders can inspire such loyalty that people are prepared to sacrifice their lives for them. Leadership theories is an outlines their positive and negative point. It have 5 point of the leadership theories there are trait theory, contingency theory, path-goal theory, transformational leadership and the last is team leadership. Trait theory means the qualities and characteristics of a person. Contingency theory means the context and the situation. Path-goal theory means employee motivation and how leaders motivate followers and the last is team leadership means focus on effective teams. How to be a manager A Manager is the person who responsible for controls, planning, manages and directing the work of a group of individuals, monitoring their work and taking corrective action when it was necessary. For many managers also will do the same first step into a management career because Managers can  direct  workers,  they  can  directly  or several executives who  direct the workers. The manager must be familiar with the work in all the groups he or she supervises because it is more important for the manager to know how to manage and control the workers and to know how to make the workers do well in their work. A manager must have the power to decided hire and fire employees or to promote them. In a large company, a manager may only recommend such action to the next level for management. The manager has the power to change the work assignments in team members. Sometimes a restaurant manager will be hired from outside it is Because of his  or  her management  or accountin g  skills, but sometimes is a  restaurant owner  will promote  promising  employees  to the trenches and  the majority of  oversight  positions. Luthans (1988) survey of what 300 managers actually did (not what we think they do) revealed the percentage of time spent on four main roles as: Traditional management (32%)-planning, controlling and making decisions. Communication (29%)-exchanging information, verbally and on paper Human resource management(20%)-motivation, disciplining, general staffing difficulties, training and staff development Networking (19%) -socialising with people outside the immediate department. Compare Leadership and Management What is the difference in between management and leadership? Managers have underling unless their title is reputation and given as a mark of seniority. Managers  in their  positions of authority  given by  the company,  its subsidiary  for the  work  they do, basically  they were told. Management style is  Transactions, in that the manager tells the underling what to do, and the underling does this not because they are blind robots, but because they have promised to do incentives. Managers are paid to get things done, often within tight Limit of time and money. They thus naturally pass on this work focus to their underling. Leaders do not have underling at least not when they are leading. Many  organizational leaders  have  subordinates, but they also managers,  because when they  want to lead, they must  give up their formal  authoritarian  control,  because leaders  have  followers, and follow  always a  voluntary activity. What should I do  if people  do not  encourage them to  follow you?  You have to  appeal  to them  on how to  comply with these  rules will  result in  their  heart,  desire.  They  have to  follow you  enough to stop  what they are doing, and perhaps  into the  dangerous and  the situation, they usually  will not consider  risk. Leaders with a stronger  fascination  find it easier to attract people to their cause. As a part of their Persuade they typically promise  Transformation  benefits, such that their followers will not just receive extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people. Although many leaders have a charismatic style to some Level and this does not require a loud personality. Although leaders are good with people or good chat with people, this does not mean they are friendly with them. In order to keep the Mysterious of leadership, they often hold a degree of separation and indifferent. This does not mean that leaders do not pay attention to tasks. Leader just wants to do what they realize, however, is the importance of enticing others to work towards their vision. 1.4 Summary This table is summary the above gives a sense of the differences between a leader and a manager. This is an explanation characterization and there is a whole spectrum between either ends of these scales along which each role can range. Subject Leader Manager Essence Change Stability Focus Leading people Managing work Have Followers Subordinates Horizon Long-term Short-term Seeks Vision Objectives Approach Sets direction   Plans detail Decision Facilitates Makes Power Personal charisma Formal authority Appeal to Heart Head Energy Passion Control Culture Shapes Enacts Dynamic Proactive Reactive Persuasion Sell Tell Style Transformational Transactional Exchange Excitement for work Money for work Wants Achievement Results Rules Breaks Makes Conflict Uses Avoids Direction New roads Existing roads Truth Seeks Establishes Concern What is right Being right Blame Takes Blames Question 2 2.1 Mass Market The  mass market  is a general business term describing the largest group of consumers for a specified industry product. Mass markets mean that product cater for public which sell considerably cheap in the perception of consumers. For examples, soda or padini. It is the opposite extreme of the term  niche market. Mass  marketing is a  market coverage  strategy, in which  a company decides to  ignore  market segment  differences and  go after the  whole market  there is a  quotation.  It is a  way  of marketing products  to a wide  audience.  The idea is to  broadcast  information, will likely  reach  a maximum.  Focused on  traditional mass marketing,  radio, television and  newspapers,  to  reach  this broad audience  of  media.  Through contact with  most  of the  audience may come into contact with  products  is maximized.  In theory,  this  will be directly  related to  the sale or  purchase   a large number of  the product. The opposite the  niche  market because  it focuses on high  sales and low prices.  Its purpose  is to provide  products and services,  will attract the whole market. 2.2 Niche Market A  niche market  is a focused, targetable portion of a market. Mean that, a business that focuses on a niche market is solution a need for a product or service that is not being solution by mainstream providers.  You can think of a niche market as a narrowly defined group of potential customers and niche market mean that products cater for a particular segment of consumers, which sell at considerably cheap but premium, in the perception of consumer. For example, star buck or coffee bean. For example,  instead of providing  cleaning services  to establish a business may  blind  cleaning services  in the  niche  market  of professional. Why should you bother to establish a niche market? Because  there are  great advantages, and other  small businesses may not know  your specific  niche market and large businesses wont want to bother with it. To  capitalize  on the  niche  market  the key is to  find a  niche  market or customers  who can access  the development, that is growing fast enough, and that is not owned by one established vendor already. See  How to Find and Master a Niche Market  for more information. 2.3 Compare Mass Market and Niche Market In niche marketing the company concentrates on small target market. The reason to do this is the company has low capital, low costs, have highly specialization, and the characteristics of target market needs customize and specialize products or services. The advantages of niche market is become specialize and has strong brand image for example star buck or coffee bean this 2 also got a strong brand image compare to kopitiam why star buck and coffee bean can make 15 dollars per cup of coffee but kopitiam just can make 5 or 6 dollars per cup of coffee. That is because star buck and coffee bean is concentrates on small target market. In Mass Marketing, the company copes sells to all and public people and copes accommodate all desires of target of market with one product. Strategy applied is make one product type which can gratify all consumer desires. For examples, soda and padini this 2 company also aim in mass market just target of market with one product. Mass-marketing  strategy,  trying to  reach  a larger  regional market with a  marketing strategy. This strategy  has the advantage of  low cost  production costs  and market  aspects of  the  monopolistic tendencies  of the  owner of allies.  Another advantage  of this strategy  is to  close all  producers can  market  from  competitors. http://www.answers.com/topic/mass-marketing#ixzz1ECMQY9Te http://www.answers.com/topic/mass-marketing#ixzz1ECLrdbFN

How Americans Were Seduced By Annexation Of Hawaii History Essay

How Americans Were Seduced By Annexation Of Hawaii History Essay In the title of this paper, I am making an overt reference to a recent publication of Dr. Andrew J. Bacevich, retired US Army colonel and professor of History and International Relations at Boston University. In this title, Bacevich provided a contemporary analysis of the roots of militarism in American society, and the over reliance that America places of its military capabilities when it comes to world affairs. It may seem odd at first, but Americas eponymous militarism and its current experiences in the current Global War on Terror have direct parallels with the US involvement in the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. The US involvement in the forcible removal of the Kingdoms sovereignty has been described as Americas first experience with regime change.  [2]  In this paper, I will be documenting how Hawaii was in fact a sovereign nation within the family of nations; a status which changed with the US militarys intervention in the overthrow of the existing government in 1893. I will be framing this military intervention in the context of international laws and the United States own codes on war. In addition, the annexation of the strategically important Hawaii in the context of the impending Spanish American war will be discussed, as it has clear corollaries with the current US oil wars. (Just like the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, Americas participation in the overthrow of Haw aiis sovereignty in 1893 brings up questions of legality regarding international law.) To begin the analysis it is useful to look at the two frames of looking at Hawaii as an entity today: Hawaii as the 50th State In researching this paper, I have gained a new understanding in the history of the Hawaiian Islands, which is very different from the standard narrative which is generally taught. In fact, what is clear is that there are now two distinct narratives that in play when it comes to conceptualizing Hawaii. The first is that Hawaii is the 50th state of the United States of America, having won statehood in 1959. It is an idyllic land of beaches, tiki bars and a haven for surfing and brown girls in hulu skirts. One of the main texts consulted in this research was the Russs The Hawaiian Revolution. This monograph was published in 1959, the year that Hawaii became a US state. This is the authors preface as it succinctly describes how America frames its conception of Hawaii: No commercial company would touch this book because popular appeal is lacking in the pages. It is simply not the kind of book which would ever become a bestseller. Upon submitting a preliminary draft, at his request, to a reader of a New York publishing house, I received the following comment: What the commercial market wants on Hawaii is romance. I cannot quite see how you can appropriately put out this book with a jacket showing a scantily clad brownish maiden and a blurb assuring the reader that he or she might get some pointers as to how sin thrives in Hawaii. And that is what the public wants.    [An interesting aside to this is that this institution has one copy of this book, which was acquired in 1977 and in the intervening 33 years, I am the forth individual to check this item from the library.] Hawaii as a sovereign nation under US occupation In contrast to this way of looking at Hawaii, is to view Hawaii as a sovereign nation which is not a part of the United States and instead has been under illegal occupation since 1893. This is certainly not the way that Hawaii is portrayed in mainstream education and media, but does make sense of and explains the growing Hawaiian sovereignty movement. It is testament to the power and hegemony of the United States that what is in reality a colonial possession is perceived to have ceded its powers voluntarily and become a US state. To understand this narrative of Hawaii is to understand neo-colonialism at work. The United States clearly had a renewed vigour of Manifest Destiny in the late 1800s. At this time there was a push westwards to the Pacific coast, in search of cheaper labor, land and raw materials. Native people impeding this were fought, through the Indian wars all the west to the western coast. At this time there was great interest in the vast market of China and the Orient. Japan was a growing imperial power. The US was gravely concerned with European colonial powers and the nascent Japanese colonial powers influence on China, as this was in large part an untapped market. Hawaii as a military outpost Today Hawaii is one of the most militarized places on earth. It has tens of thousands of troops and more than 150 military installations on the island. More than a third of the land is controlled by the US military. It had become a popular retirement location for military personnel, and real estate prices are several times the national average. It is home to The  United States Pacific Command  (USPACOM), which has responsibility for over half of the worlds surface. The idea of the American military base is a fundamentally symbol of power for the US. A recent count of US military installations across the globe places the number of foreign bases at over 700  [3]  . A US presence in Germany or the detention facilities at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba are facts of the modern world. In his recent critique of the modern American empire, Chalmers Johnson, seeing these bases as a symbol of empire, draws parallels between the current spread of mid- and large-sized US military bases with those of the British Empire and the Roman Empire at the heights of their powers.  [4]  Given these parallels, it is evident why the label of empire has been applied to the American experience. This notion of empire changed the image of America from within and to the outside world, with the 1898 annexation of Hawaii was an important first step in the creation of this new empire. Fundamental to the US domination of Asia was to have a military outpost far out in the Pacific. In John Hustons WWII documentary Report from the Aleutians he shows a map that illustrates how the Aleutian Islands and the Hawaiian islands were the two strategic outposts from which the Pacific coast of the United States was protected.  [5]  In essence the strategy was to establish naval superiority by bringing the war to them, and have these outposts operating as vanguards against attack. Ernest May emphasizes the shift in Americas foreign policy when it came to the Hawaii question by comparing views expressed about Hawaii with those expressed twenty-odd years earlier about the Dominican republic: As of 1870 they had still seen the United States as an experiment: the only consequential nation without a monarch and a privileged aristocracy, and the only one that attempted to reconcile national and local interests by means of a federal system.  [6]   Central to the debates and discourse that occurred around the 1890s was the Monroe Doctrine from several decades earlier. By the 1890s The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 seemed to offer justification for actions taken involving Hawaii, Cuba, The Philippines, China and Central and South America. Ultimately, the Spanish-American war of 1898 was an important focal point that sharpened attitudes towards how America should approach her role within the wider world. To understand this, it is useful to revisit the Monroe Doctrine of over half a century earlier and to explain why it became so important at the close of the century.   The Monroe Doctrine was declared in a few paragraphs of President James Monroes seventh annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. Monroe warned European countries not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere, stating that the American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.  [7]  This made clear to the rest of the world that any such colonization would amount to an act of aggression and would be responded to with force.    The Monroe Doctrine thus became the foundation of future U.S. foreign policy, and it set out to separate the New World from the Old World. Although this Doctrine met with tacit approval from Great Britain, it was not initially taken as seriously as it would be later in the century due to the image at the time of Americas week naval power. Alongside the resurgent interest in the Monroe Doctrine, there also was a movement towards a new Manifest Destiny a phrase normally ascribed to an earlier period of westward territorial expansion. American historian and philosopher John Fiske wrote an influential article in 1885, published in Harpers magazine entitled A New Manifest Destiny. Referring to the frontier against barbarism Fiskes piece which advocated Christianizing and civilizing the barbarians was rapturously received by audiences at the time, on the lecture circuit.  [8]   It is interesting to contrast Fiskes optimistic and expansionist world-view with the prevailing traditionalist American sentiment of isolationism. A prime example of this was in the US restrained response to The Chilean Controversy of 1891. In late 1891 two US sailors on shore leave from the cruiser USS Baltimore in the Chilean port of Valparaà ­so were killed by rebels (who later would form the new post revolution government.) Despite registering his indignation at the attack, President Harrison remained non-confrontational. Responding to this diplomatic incident he states in an internal memo: It has been my desire in every way to cultivate friendly and intimate relationships with all the Governments of this hemisphere. We do not covet their territory.  [9]   President McKinleys future Secretary of State John Sherman in 95 echoed these sentiments when he wrote that he hopes that our people will be content with internal growth, and avoid the complications of foreign acquisitions.  [10]  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is in the context of the above tensions between the expansionist and traditionalist mindsets that Hawaii and its intertwinement with the United States came about. The background to the US involvement in Hawaii began with trade treaties cementing a relationship going back a half century based on missionaries and whaling fleets  [11]  . In return for the United States permitting Hawaiian sugar to enter the American market freely, the Hawaiian government agreed not to lease or dispose of any of its territory to any other power. It also lead to the granting to the US of a naval base at Pearl Harbor. Interestingly the Treaty explicitly acknowledged Hawaii as a sovereign state. Overall, however, the effect of this treaty was to dilute the countrys independence and make her dependent on the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At this point Hawaii was a sovereign independent state the Hawaiian Kingdom and was governed under a single ruler (King David KalÄ kaua.) It had international recognition and had entered into treaties and conventions with the nations of Austria, Belgium, Bremen (presently Germany), Denmark, France, Germany, Hamburg (presently Germany), Italy, Hong Kong (former colony of England), Japan, Netherlands, New South Wales (former colony of England), Portugal, Russia, Samoa, the Swiss Confederation, Sweden, Norway, Tahiti (colony of France), United Kingdom, and the United States of America.  [12]  In 1887, the King was forced to promulgate a new constitution which would drastically reduce his powers and transfer the balance of power to the American, European and Hawaiian elite on the islands. It changed the voting rights of the population and disenfranchised Asians from voting. This came to be known as the Bayonet Constitution as a result of the King being under threat of being deposed by the armed militia and politicians representing the elite what came to be known as the Reform Party. This Party favored annexation with the United States. In the end this led to the permanent cession of Pearl Harbor and its surrounds to the United States. This experience of having a naval military installation in a foreign territory or host country was to be the blueprint for the future expansion of the American Empire. This uneasy alliance continued until 1893 when Queen LiliÊ »uokalani, sister of the King ascended to the throne and went about drafting a new constitution which would restore the monarchys powers. As a reaction to this, elite mostly American residents on the island created a Committee of Safety which had for its purpose the removal of the Queen, and ultimately to cede to the United States through annexation. A provisional government was assembled and a coup dà ©tat took place aided in large part by the presence in Hawaii of a detachment of uniformed US marines who came aboard from their cruiser, the USS Boston which was in Honolulu Harbor at the time. The presence of these armed US soldiered who were there ostensible in a neutral capacity to protect US citizens in Hawaii was sufficiently intimidating for the Queen to surrender, leading to the abolition of the monarchy. What is particularly interesting about this whole episode and ensuing controversy is that it marked a period of introspection and conspicuous concern for the image that America was projecting to the world. President Harrison had favored annexation but when President Cleveland assumed office again in 1993 for his second term (the first term being directly before Harrison) he strongly opposed annexation on moral grounds. In a message to Congress dated December 18, 1893 he states that all things relating to the transaction (the treaty of annexation of Hawaii) should be clear and free from suspicion. He conceded in the same message that the Provisional Government (of Hawaii) owes its existence to an armed invasion by the United States. The tone of this message makes it clear that President Cleveland thought the annexation of the islands to be unconscionable and would impugn the American people and the image of the country internationally.  [13]  In fact President Cleveland ordered an investigation into the overthrow by former Congressman James Henderson Blount.   It was concluded by Blount in 1893 that the United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government. However, a U.S. Congressional investigation under Senator John Tyler Morgan into the overthrow, one year later cleared the US military of wrongdoing.  [14]  At this point Cleveland changed his position, recognizing the Provisional Government and the nascent Republic of Hawaii. The United States had failed to annex the Hawaiian Islands by treaty. The Hawaiian question remained, and continued to be debated. It could be said that at this point America had to position itself internationally, wrestling with ideas between its traditional moral repugnance at the idea of colonial interference and a growing notion that it should take all outlying territory necessary to (its) own defense.  [15]  That last quotation is attributed to the very influential Henry Cabot Lodge speaking to the US Senate in 1895. In this speech he forewarned of Japanese encroachment of the islands which would cause a threat to the United States.  [16]   Lorrin A. Thurston, leader of the 1893 coup, further pushed the cause for annexation by emphasizing the Japanese threat. He circulated a pamphlet  [17]  in 1897 warning of Japanese immigration to Hawaii and the threat that the huge numbers of arrivals to the islands would pose.   Eventually they would be dominant in numbers and being an energetic, ambition, warlike and progressive people would pose a serious threat. Walter LaFeber summed up the years leading up to this writing:   Ã‚   Jingoistic congressmen, expansionist-minded naval officers, and militant-minded newspaper editors frequently attempted to conjure up the specter of British, Japanese, or even Russian control of these islands.  [18]   The following year in 1898 the new President McKinley was in favor of a Treaty of Annexation, but this failed in the Senate. A congressional joint resolution was obtained this year, and on the authority of this joint resolution Hawaii was annexed, becoming a US territory officially in 1900. This was an important turning point, as effectively this was the first instance of the new American Imperialism. It is also important in that the basis for the annexation was not a treaty but rather a joint resolution (even a treaty of cession by the self-imposed government officials of the Bayonet Constitution would be suspect.) To compare this with today, the United States had as much right to annex Hawaii in 1898 as it has today to annex Iraq or Afghanistan. This is a fundamental point at the heart of the issue the overthrow was illegal under international law. But in the context of the Islands use as an outpost during the 1898 Spanish American war, that is what happened. In his doctoral dissertation on the issue, Dr. Keanu Sai writes Congress could no more annex the Hawaiian Islands in 1898 as a matter of military necessity during the Spanish American war than it could annex Afghanistan today as a matter of military necessity during the American war on terrorism.  [19]  Dr. Sai, who himself served as a US Army officer, gave an example of how Americas involvement in the Hawaiian overthrow would be perceived now. He explained how if he landed in South Korea as a US Army officer without a status of forces agreement or consent by that government, it would be an act of war.  [20]  When the US Marines came ashore in 1898 wielding Gatling guns and Howitzers to protect the insurgents, this was thus an act of war. Military occupation is currently regulated by the Hague and Geneva Conventions, and US Army Field Manual 27-10. Section 358 of this manual states: Occupation Does Not Transfer Sovereignty: Being an incident of war, military occupation confers upon the invading force the means of exercising control for the period of occupation. It does not transfer the sovereignty to the occupant, but simply the authority or power to exercise some of the rights of sovereignty. The exercise of these rights results from the established power of the occupant and from the necessity of maintaining law and order, indispensable both to the inhabitants and to the occupying force. Section 369 of the same field manual entitled Local Law and New Legislation states that the penal laws of the occupied territory shall remain in force. It is for this reason that in the current War on Terror US lieutenants can be seen to be acting in temporarily municipal capacities as Afghani town mayors etc. Clearly neither of the above regulations was observed by the US in Hawaii. The political crisis of the Spanish American war provided the motive and the opportunity to annex Hawaii. From this point onward the military buildup in Hawaii took off in earnest. To keep the war outside the continental US and to protect shipping posts, a large navy was to be created with naval outposts at Hawaii, Guam, Subic Bay and Pago Pago in Samoa. By attaining Hawaii unlawfully, the US has demonstrated that military, economic and political motives came first. Hawaii did indeed continue to prove to be the strategically valuable military outpost that it was presented as in the 1890s. At no time more so than during WWII. The war was fundamentally a global war between different colonial powers about who gets to control what. After the war ended, the United Nations was set up and charged with tackling the question of colonialism itself. The 1950s saw a wave of colonialist movements and clearly the US began to see Hawaii as being in danger of falling outside of the US sphere of influence. Statehood was voted upon in 1959 and Hawaiis ties to the US were formalized. At this time the minority of the population were Hawaiians whose sovereignty had been taken away, and the vote was passed by the very people who benefited from the illegal regime change. These people were the settlers from the US, the Asian laborers they had brought to the Islands and US military personnel stationed and living there. Clearly the interests of the native Hawaiians was placed at the forefront in this vote for statehood (a concept the UN refers to as a duty of sacred trust.) The ballot for statehood gave the whole experience the veneer of democracy. Article Six  of the United States Constitution  makes treaties made by the US a part of the supreme law of the land, the constitution. As a signatory to the United Nations and by acting in contravention of its codes, the US was thereby violating both international and domestic (constitutional) law, in order to further its military and strategic aims. In his (of the time) groundbreaking work The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, William Appleman Williams shoes how America has used informal empire to influence and shape weaker states into an American political and economic mold. At the time of publication, Appleman Williams in his conclusion chapter references the then ongoing Vietnam war and he draws parallels with this and the way the United States acted in the past (Hawaii and the expansionism era of the 1890s.) It is interesting to now be able to draw parallels with the Bush Doctrine as evidenced in the Global War on Terror. Williams comments on the Open Door policy for foreign expansionism which helped America out of the slump of 1893 (in essence, the scramble for China.) This foreign policy advanced by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay allowed imperial powers to equally access the Chinese market, without in fact colonizing it. (It was a great fear of the U.S. that China would be colonized thereby threatening U.S. commercial interests.)   He provided a revisionist interpretation of the debates occurring in the 1890s: at the time it was imperialist vs. anti-imperialist Williams shifts this analysis to colonialist vs. anti-colonialist. This analysis provides us with further proof that the American experiment differed in substantial ways from the colonial empires of the Old World. His analysis also questions the then pervading narrative of Americas altruistic exceptionalism as being the primary driver in entering into foreign wars. Again, parallels can be drawn between more recent US Oil wars. In an inte resting contemporary development on the Hawaii situation, President Clinton in 1993 (100 years after the overthrow) signed a congressional joint resolution into law, known as the Apology Resolution. It acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States and further acknowledges that the Native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people over their national lands, either through the Kingdom of Hawaii or through a plebiscite or referendum  [21]   To conclude, it is evident that a marked shift in occurred in the American foreign policy and militarism in the 1890s, culminating in the Spanish-American war. Americas approach to the Hawaii situation and the ultimate annexation of the islands was a turning point, and was clearly the first real evidence of the new American empire. I have reviewed debates and accounts from the time and later, influential revisionist writers such as Appleman Williams who makes comparisons to the then current Vietnam situation. I have reviewed and discussed recent literature from critics of current U.S. wars and drawn comparisons between Hawaii in 1898 and current conflicts over 100 years later. The conclusion is that although the symbol or form of empire is different it is still there.

Essay --

Fate plays an important role in Romeo and Juliet. Who thought this four letter word would play such a big part in this play? In this play we see that the characters believe fate is what rules their lives, and that it is their reality. Their lives lie in the hands of fate. It always brings trouble, especially between the Capulet and Montague families. The fates of both Romeo and Juliet were predetermined in the prologue when it said â€Å"a pair of star crossed lovers take their life.†(Prologue) As their love for each other progresses, so does the ominous signs of death that show up. Characters start having premonitions and dreams of their unhappy ending. Even after the omens and signs, the lovers loved each other so deeply that they did not care about them as they just easily dismissed them. We as the audience know that Romeo and Juliet will die in the end, and their fate is shown and unraveled throughout the plot. Because as the audience we know the fate of Romeo and Juliet from the beginning, we are always hoping that they will take different paths of life. However, both their fates a...

Vengeance of the Gods :: essays research papers

What is an epic? An epic is an extended narrative poem recounting actions, travels, adventures, and heroic episodes and is written in a high style. The Odyssey, by Homer, is definitely one of the greatest classic epics known to man. This tale contains numerous epic elements such as in media res or â€Å"in the middle of things† to grab the reader’s attention and make the reader keep reading to get the full story. Throughout the story, Homer included the epic element of divine intervention where the gods play a role in the outcome of actions of mortals. The theme of hospitality to strangers is also present in this celebrated epic. The Odyssey is worthy of being an epic because of these three conventions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Homer uses the epic element in media res to pull the reader in by starting in the middle of the story. The reader is then filled in by flashbacks or the main character re-telling his tale. By using this convention, Homer keeps the reader curious and interested and makes the reader keep reading until he or she finishes understanding the whole plot. In The Odyssey, the reader does not know half of Odysseus’ journey until he enlightens Alkinoos and Arà ªte as to what events took place before he was washed ashore on Kalypso’s Island. The reader always expects for the story to go directly to Odysseus, but instead the story follows the gods. Homer used in media res to show respect to the gods by starting the story â€Å"In the bright hall of Zeus†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I. 42). The author depicts conservation between Zeus and Athena about the fate of Odysseus to show that the gods always come first even before the main character. Homer uses the curiosity of the r eader to his advantage by starting out Odysseus’ long journey home in media res.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Divine intervention is another major component of this epic. At the beginning, Homer placed the role of the gods to determine the fate of Odysseus. â€Å"With this Athena left him/ as a bird rustles upward, off and gone. / But as she went she put new spirit in him, / a new dream of his father†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I. 368-371). Without the involvement of the grey-eyed goddess Athena, Telemakhos would never have gain the courage to journey out into the world to find the fate of his father. Throughout the epic, Athena appears on earth disguised as everything from a little girl to Odysseus’s old friend Mentor to spin Odysseus’s long journey home.

RIP Bradley Nowell :: essays research papers

-T hose of you who were fortunate enough to meet Bradley Nowell, saw a man who liked to smile and sing. He did these two things with the greatest of ease. The man we knew liked to pick up a guitar, not needles, but on the 25th of May in 1996, many of us were shocked by the news of his tragic death. Just seven days earlier, he married the beautiful Troy Dendekker. Things were lookin absolutely bright for him. It was rumored that he even woke up extra early on the morning of his death to walk his dog on the beach because he felt just great to be living. Hours later after he woke up, he was found dead from a heroin overdose in his San Francisco motel room. W hat went wrong I thought to myself? I remember hearing the news of his death on a local radio station. I've been a Sublime fan since my senior year of high school. The single "Date Rape" made the Chicago airwaves and I was hooked. I did a little research and I discovered that Bradley had been in and out of rehabilitation centers since 1992. Many people that I've talked to about Bradley's death really didn't seem to care. Being a huge Sublime fan, I was angered by their ignorance. Most of the time I heard people say that it was Bradley's fault for taking the drug in the first place, but I came to realize that it really wasn't his fault. Troy Nowell says in the VH1 documentary on Bradley that obviously the drug was "bigger than both of us (Bradley and Troy)". She said he hated what he was doing, and tried to stop numerous times, but the world is ignorant to the fact that this drug, heroin, is extremely physically addictive. Bud Gaugh, the drummer of Sublime, said he used to hug, sweat, and cry with Bradley during his fight with heroin. If it were his choice, Bradley would've stopped using it, but heroin took a hold of his nerves and his entire body. W e need to remember the Bradley who gave us three absolutely spectacular albums and a voice that stopped the world, not the one who stuck needles in his arm. There is not a day that goes by that I don't think about him a good twelve hours during the day.

Edward Snowden Essay

On June 6, 2013 The Guardian newspaper printed a story alleging that the National Security Agency (NSA) was collecting telephone records of millions of Verizon customers in a top secret government sanctioned program. This would be just the first glimpse at the many disturbing actions revealed by a man named Edward Snowden, a former Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee and NSA contractor who used his computer prowess and security clearance to collect information about how the United States government has been monitoring its own citizens. Mr. Snowden’s actions have prompted the government to file criminal charges against him including theft of government property and espionage. This situation raises serious questions about the legality and ethicality of government surveillance programs as well as security of personal information. There has always been a debate over the trade-off between privacy and security, and this is a perfect example of that discussion. This is an issue that affects anyone who utilizes the technological advancements of today, regardless of the criminality (or lack thereof) of their actions. To better understand this issue we must first take a look at the laws that govern surveillance and the laws that protects our individual freedom from unwarranted surveillance. Two of the most important documents that focus on these issues are the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution, which protects Americans against unwarranted surveillance, and the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, which was instituted in 1986 as an update to the law governing government wiretapping programs. Since the issue at hand regards government surveillance in general and the Fourth Amendment was written to protect Americans from this act, it is worth quoting in full: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to  be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. According to Jackson Lears (2013), the Board of Governors Professor of History at Rutgers University and Editor in Chief of the Raritan Quarterly Review, this Amendment was â€Å"written by men who had rejected imperial power and were determined to prevent its reassertion in their new nation†¦Nothing could more flagrantly violate those requirements than the NSA dragnet† (p. 4). Although our Constitution was written almost 230 years ago, and the men who wrote this document could not have possibly foreseen the technological advancements that would be made in that time (i.e. the telephone, nuclear weapons or the Internet), they were witness to the abuse of government power and tried to institute broad principles to mitigate the possibility of their new government becoming corrupt in that way. The problem our country faces, however, is that in order to regulate this type of behavior it must first be known, which until Edward Snowden appeared had only been considered speculative, and then addressed (Richards, 2013, p. 1934). The government has made attempts, however feeble, at implementing additional laws to prevent this type of abuse of power in the past, but has not kept up with the times when it comes to updating these safeguards. The Supreme Court ruled in 1928 that warrantless wiretapping was not illegal, but that ruling was overturned in 1967 and it was not until 1968 that Congress passed legislation governing wiretapping. In the same fashion, the Electronic Communications Privacy Act was passed in 1986 as an amendment to the Wiretap Act, but has not been updated in the nearly 30 years since it was enacted (Freiwald & Mà ©tille, 2013, p. 1291). The only two times Congress has clarified what may or not be done in conjunction with the Electronic Communications Privacy Act was in 1994 with the passing of the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act and the Patriot Act (passed in 2001 only 6 weeks after the attacks on September 11), which both â€Å"further eased the restrictions on law enforcement surveillance† (Freiwald & Mà ©tille, 2013, p. 1292) and â€Å"ensured[d] that providers of telecommunications services maintained the accessibility of their systems to wiretapping (Freiwald & Mà ©tille, 2013, p. 1293). Friewald and Mà ©tille (2013) also explain that â€Å"surveillance that proceeds outside the bounds of the ECPA (and related statutes), either by virtue of not being historically covered, or by  virtue of being too new to be included, can proceed without any judicial review, so long as a court has not yet held that the Fourth Amendment requires regulation (p. 1295-1296). The question we must ask is whether or not this type of surveillance is necessarily dangerous or if it is necessary to protect our country and national security. According to Neil Richards (2013), â€Å"First, surveillance is harmful because it can chill the exercise of our civil liberties†¦Second, we must recognize that secret surveillance is illegitimate and prohibit the creation of any domestic-surveillance programs whose existence is secret†¦Third, we should recognize that total surveillance is illegitimate and reject the idea that it is acceptable for the government to record all Internet activity without authorization† (p. 1935-1936). The first idea that Richards raises deal with our civil liberties such as freedom of speech. When people are constantly under the fear of government surveillance, they may be less likely to speak their mind when they disagree with public policy because they may fear retaliation or retribution for their dissent. The second point of secret surveillance deals with the idea of accountability for those who are performing the surveillance. If a blank check is written by Congress for surveillance with no oversight as to what surveillance is being performed, then there can be no guarantee that the people performing the surveillance are not violating our personal privacy. If the government wants it’s people to trust them, then they should be comfortable with the idea of â€Å"trust but verify†. Finally, the idea of total surveillance is the most concrete example of the violation of the Fourth Amendment which requires probably cause as a basis for any intrusive action by the government. I am not against the idea of surveillance, especially in the dangerous world we live in, but at the same time we must find a balance and understand our limits. In order to preserve our individual freedoms we must be willing to accept a certain level of insecurity and a certain level of personal responsibility. The level of personal responsibility we must accept is to be willing, and able, to defend ourselves without relying on the government to do it for us all the time. One example of this is the attacks of  September 11, 2001 where 4 planes were hijacked and used as weapons. Out of these 4 planes, only the passengers of one, United flight 93, were willing to stand up for themselves against the hijackers. If the hijackers knew that the passengers on each and every plane would have acted with the bravery and heroism of those on the United flight, I doubt they would have hijacked any of them. As far as accepting a certain level of insecurity goes, that is just a part of life; there is no way we can prevent every horrible thing from happening. I understand the human desire to prevent bad things from happening, but what cost are we willing to pay for it? If we want to prevent car accidents that occur from deer running into the road, does that mean we should kill all the deer? In the words of Benjamin Franklin, one of our Founding Fathers and signatories of our Constitution, â€Å"They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.† References Lears, J. (2013). EDITOR’S NOTE. Raritan, 33(1), 1-6. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Richards, N. M. (2013). THE DANGERS OF SURVEILLANCE. Harvard Law Review, 126(7), 1934-1965. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Freiwald, S., & Mà ©tille, S. (2013). REFORMING SURVEILLANCE LAW: THE SWISS MODEL. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 28(2), 1261-1332. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Why Do People Use Drugs?

PSY215: DRUGS AND DEPENDENCY ESSAY ONE WHY DO PEOPLE USE DRUGS? LACHLAN SLOAN 30790798 Throughout history, people have used different kinds of drugs to alter the way they feel or experience consciousness. Ritualistic use of drugs has been commonly practiced by various cultures such as the mushroom induced trance state utilised by Native American Indians to commune with the Great Spirit. Pacific Islanders drink Kava as a means of connecting with the supernatural, healing illness and welcoming guests to the community.Whilst Indians referred to being consciously high as the state of ‘Shiva’ and associated this process with the worship of one of their prime deities, Shiva. Over time the ritualistic use of drugs has integrated as a part of modern society which can be observed in celebrations such as weddings and birthdays where alcohol is commonly consumed. As there is such a vast range of drugs and influences available with many established uses and categorisations the proce ss of determining why people use drugs becomes intricate very rapidly.Norman E Zinberg developed a theory on drug use which is a widely accepted public health model. The basis of this theory argues that it is not possible to understand drug use, the effects or the outcomes of the drug experience unless you take into account the interrelationship of factors between: the drug, the environment and the individual (Zinberg, 1986). For the purpose of this analysis various aspects of influence have been categorised based on Zinberg’s theory to coherently convey why people use drugs.The categorizations are as follows: Individual (cognition, genetics, and physical/psychological state), drug (perceived functions of drug use in society/specific purpose for using a particular substance, drug related expectancies and compulsive use) and environment (social/contextual level). Boys et al (2001) recorded among a study of 364 participants that had used cannabis over the past year that, the tw o most popular reasons for using the drug were to ‘just get really stoned or intoxicated’ (90. 7%) and ‘help you to relax’ (96. 8%). People using drugs often state that they use them to feel ‘good’.What makes these people feel ‘good’ is the way in which the chemicals in these drugs influence cognition. This state of feeling ‘good’ and or being high is attained because most drugs act on the limbic system in the brain, referred to as the ‘pleasure centre’. The presynaptic terminal releases the neurotransmitters Dopamine, Noradrenaline and Serotonin via nerves located at the terminal. These neurotransmitters are released and travel to the post synaptic terminal where specific receptor sites are located on the nerve cell for each neurotransmitter.Here nerve action potential is developed via neurotransmitter action on the receptor site. Prevalent drugs act by blocking, mimicking or stimulating the release of ne urotransmitters via the presynaptic terminal. When Dopamine levels are increased, mimicked or reuptake is permitted (blocked) the reward pathway in the brain is affected which when stimulated creates feelings of pleasure and euphoria (pleasure is associated with reward). The ingested drug is hence associated with pleasure and reward and the person is influenced to continue using the particular drug.Current cognitive-motivational theories of addiction assert that prioritising appetitive, reward-related information plays an inherent role in the development and continuation of substance abuse (Field & Cox, 2008; Franken, 2003; Wiers et al 2007). A study focused on reward-related attentional processes among 682 young adolescents (mean age= 16. 14) had participants complete a motivated game in the format of a spatial orienting task as a behavioural index of appetitive-related attentional processes and a questionnaire to index substance (alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis) use.Correlational a nalysis showed a positive relationship between substance use and enhanced attentional engagement, with cues that predicted potential reward and non- punishment (Ostafin et al, 2013). Research since the mid 1960’s has established that genetics play a modest (yet relevant) role in the development of drug use problems in some individuals (Pickens, 1988; Farrell & Strang, 1992; Hill, 1993). It has been conveyed by Mcgue (1994) that genetics have an influence on a person’s disposition to use drugs.After a review of literature on genetics research in relation to alcoholism, Mcgue established that genetic factors exert a moderate influence on male and female risk for alcoholism. It has been suggested by Hansler (2001) that mental illness motivates sufferers to take drugs (prescription and recreational), this process can cause drug problems (when a person takes drugs in the hope of escaping their symptoms or becomes dependent on a prescription drug). Examples include a person suffering from social anxiety ingesting cocaine in order to temperamentally enhance their sociability when going out with friends.Most of the evidence, however, seems to indicate that these factors can lead to problems; that is, biological, social and/or environmental factors predispose a person to have both a mental health and a substance abuse problem. Aesthetics and physicality are also motivators for drug use. A person will ingest substances to alter the physical nature of their body, primarily due to the fact that they are not satisfied with a particular aspect of their physical self. Examples include; performance enhancing drugs (steroids), Viagra and antibiotics.In beginning the process of analysing the perceived functions of drug use/specific purpose for using a particular substance, psychoactive drugs are the first place to start as due to the broad range of this category. The classification of psychoactive drugs is sub divided into three categories (with some drugs falling into more than one category); Depressants, Stimulants and Hallucinogens. Depressants work by inhibiting the activity of the CNS (Central Nervous System), which slows down various bodily functions such as heart rate and breathing.This classification of drugs has with it a reputation inherent within society as having a calming effect (popularised primarily due to alcohol its acceptance and availability). People generally take this type of drug to relax, another primary function and motivation of the use of depressants is to combat the effects of stress and anxiety (reduces nerves and relaxes muscle). These drugs are typically easy to obtain being available illegally and legally. Examples include acquiring a depressant legally via a doctor’s prescription or benzodiazepines to treat anxiety and purchasing marijuana from a local drug dealer in order to alleviate stress from work. Stimulants work by stimulating the CNS (increasing brain activity) which causes the body to become mo re aroused and responsive. Hence stimulants elevate the mood, create excitement and even induce a state of euphoria. Due to the nature of stimulants improving responsiveness this category of drug is associated with increasing people’s energy levels as brain activity is dramatically increased.Stimulants are widely available legally and illegally with the most common being caffeine, which is the most widely used drug in the world (Julien, 2001). Hallucinogens are a class of drug that alter perceptual functions; sight, hearing, smell, taste or physical touch. Hallucinogens disrupt how the nerve cells and the neurotransmitter serotonin interact with the CNS. By altering the natural levels of serotonin in the body, hallucinogens alter the way in which your brain processes information relevant to perceptual functions.The inhibition of the user’s perceptual functions allows for the body to generate an intense high. Hence many users of hallucinogens utilise this type of drug t o experience the intensity of the high and/or to escape reality. Examples of hallucinogens include; magic mushrooms, marijuana and LSD. A web based survey of 96 (50 female, 46 male) regular drinking college students over a ten week period) reported on their previous week alcohol use and experience of 24 alcohol-related consequences, including their subjective evaluations of those consequences.Most notably of the results, hierarchical linear model tests revealed that students drank less and experienced fewer consequences following weeks in which they rated their consequences as more negative (relative to their own typical subjective evaluations), suggesting that viewing one’s recent consequences as aversive prompts self-initiated behaviour change. It was conveyed by Boys et al (1999) that significant relationships between perceived functions and both the persons intentions to use the drug again in the future and the recent use of a particular drug.Data was collected from a cro ss sectional survey of one hundred participants aged 16 – 21 years of age. Higher scores on a five item social/contextual function scale (Eg. using a drug to help you feel more confident in a social situation) were associated with a greater frequency of recent cannabis use. Drug expectancy is a psychoactive process that occurs as a response to an individual’s expectation that a drug induced effect will occur. Drug expectancy divulges the nature of a person desire to experience the effects from a particular drug(s).The effect occurs from a person’s own experience with a drug, education, feedback from peers/family and media influence. Once acquired via direct experience with a drug, the memory network of positive expectancies can be primed by internal or external drug associated cues. Primed expectancies are thought to guide subsequent drug use (Hersen, 2013). Self-reports from 704 college students were content analysed and used to develop the Marijuana Effect Exp ectancy Questionnaire. Responses were examined using exploratory and confirmatory principle components analysis.Six marijuana expectancies (34. 6% of variance) were identified: (a) cognitive and behavioural impairment, (b) relaxation and tension reduction, (c) social and sexual facilitation, (d) perceptual and cognitive enhancement, (e) global negative effects, and (f) craving and physical effects (Schafer & Brown, 1991). When a person begins using a drug on a regular basis they begin to become dependent on the drug. As tolerance towards the drug grows in the person they become more dependent on the drug in order to achieve the same effect they attained from their first usage.Drug dependency can manifest in both physical/psychological forms. This can be classified in the sense that the body requires the drug to function properly relating to either form of classification. When a person abstains from retaining the normal level of the abused drug in their blood withdrawal symptoms begi n to act. Those with a physiological dependency experience physical discomfort, shaking, nausea and vomiting as withdrawal symptoms. People with a Psychological dependence feel depressive, anxious, aggressive and irritated.Research supports the belief that the negative nature of withdrawal symptoms is associated with drug users continued abuse of a certain drug (Rogers, 2002). Social/contextual level influences have a massive level of governance over a person’s rationalising to use drugs. College students say they utilise alcohol and drugs in order to lessen depression, increase sociability, satisfy curiosity, heighten sexual pleasure, alleviate physical discomfort and expand consciousness (Robbins et al. , 1970). Association with peers tilising drugs is one of the strongest predictors of adolescent drug use (Fergusson et al, 1995; Brook et al, 1990). If other members of the group begin using drugs, some people are influenced to trade sobriety for use in order to fit in and a dapt to the group. Motivation for this exists in the individual wanting to conform to the dynamics of the group paired with fear of rejection from the group. An example of this is conveyed by Hohman et al (2013) via a study of data obtained from the National Survey of Parents and Youth (N= 1,604).Two hierarchical multiple regression models were developed examining the association between ambivalent attitudes, intentions and later marijuana use. The hierarchical models consisted of; an analysis of the moderating effect of ambivalence on the persons intent to use marijuana and the testing of the moderation of ambivalence on literal marijuana use a year later. Results from both hierarchical analyses propose that ambivalence moderated the association of friend norms and subsequent adolescent marijuana use: friend norms were better predictors of marijuana intentions (? 0. 151, t = 2. 29, p = 0. 02) and subsequent use when adolescents were attitudinally ambivalent about marijuana use (? = 0. 071, t = 2. 76, p = 0. 006). The environment of a person greatly influences their susceptibility to drug use. Not only does the social context of a person influence drug use but the environment itself plays a very influential role. A study undertaken in Zinberg’s ‘Drug, Set, And Setting: The Basis For Controlled Intoxicant Use’, analysed a group of American soldiers who began using and became addicted to heroin during the Vietnam war.After the war effort, usage â€Å"virtually ceased†, with only 12% of the soldiers remaining addicted after returning back to the United States. It is evident that these American soldiers were utilising heroin as a form of escapism, a way to disassociate themselves from the harsh reality they were situated in. Hence it can be expected that a person’s socioeconomic status would affect their use of drugs. People living in a negative environment and/or of a lower socio economic status would be more likely to turn to dr ug use as a means of dealing with and escaping their predicament.In the process of determining why people use drugs a diverse range of conclusions have been reached via a model representative of Zinberg’s theory. We began by stating the ritual usages practiced for thousands of years which have transcended into society after society. We begin with Zinberg’s notion of the individual and diverge into the way in which human cognition is affected by drugs. As this topic is explored it is conveyed just how susceptible our brains are to drug use and why we enjoy the temperamental effects drugs create.Genetics, physical and psychological disposition are also conveyed as influencing reasoning for drug use. Drugs are addressed via the perceived functions of illegal and legal drugs by an analysis of drug categorisations where perceived functions and reasons for use are conveyed. Drug expectancy and tolerance is explained and the reasoning for continued use and addiction is commun icated via a study by Schafer & Brown (1991). The social/contextual level of influence is analysed via various studies by Zinberg (1986) and Hohman (2013) conveying environmental and social influences.People ingest a diversity of different drugs for a variety of different reasons; socialisation, environmental factors, perceived norms, to relax, pleasure, to conform, genetics, addiction, out of boredom or curiosity or to escape their problems. Reference List Boys, A. , Marsden, J. , Fountain, J. , Griffiths, P. , Stillwell, G. , & Strang, J. (1999). What influences young people's use of drugs? A qualitative study of decision-making. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy,  6,  373–389. Boys, A. , Marsden, J. , ; Strang, J. 2001) Understanding reasons for drug use amongst young people: a functional perspective. Health Education Research, 16  (4), 457-469. DOI:  10. 1093/her/16. 4. 457. Field, M. , ; Cox, W. M. (2008). Attentional bias in addictive behaviours: a review of its development, causes, and consequences. American Journal of Psychology, 84, 349 – 358 DOI: 10. 1016/j. drugalcdep. 2008. 03. 030. Franken, I. H. (2003). Drug craving and addiction: integrating psychological and neuropsychopharmacological approaches, 4, 563 – 79. Hansler, V. (2001).The Inherent Disposition to Drug Abuse, 9, 32 – 47, New York: Worth Publishers. Hersen, M. (2013). Principles of Addiction: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviours and Disorders, 1, 426 – 429 Hill, W. G. (1993). Variation in genetic composition in back crossing programs, 84, 212-213. Hohman, Z. , Crano, W. , Siegel, J. , ; Alvaro E. (2013). Attitude ambivalence, friend norms, and adolescent drug use. Prevention Science, Germany: Springer, DOI: 10. 1007/s11121-013-0368-8. Julien, R. M. (2001). A Primer of Drug Action, 4, 88-105, New York: Worth Publishers.Mcgue, M. (1994). Genes, environment and the etiology of Alcoholism. The development of alcohol problems, exploring the biops ychosocial matrix of risk, 26, 1 – 40. Merrill, J. E. , Jennifer, P. , ; Barnett, N. P. (2013). The Way One Thinks Affects the Way One Drinks: Subjective Evaluations of Alcohol Consequences Predict Subsequent Change in Drinking Behaviour,  Psychology of Addictive Behaviours,  27, 42-51. Robbins L. , Edwin, S. , William, A. , Stern, F. , ; Stern M. (1970). College Student Drug Use. American Journal of Psychiatry 126, 12, 1743 – 1751.Rogers, D. (2002). Substance Dependency: Consequences and the Path to Recovery, 8, 78 – 81. Schafer, J. , ; Brown, S. A. (1991). Marijuana and cocaine expectancies and drug use patterns, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 558 – 565. Schuster, C. , ; Pickens, R. (1988). AIDS and Intravenous Drug Abuse, Problems of drug dependence 1988, 7, 241 – 252. Strang, J. , ; Farrell, M. (1992). Harm Minimisation for Drug Misusers, 3, 1127–1128, London: Sage Van Hemel-Ruiter, M. E. , DeJong, P. J. , Alberti ne, J. , ; Brian D. Ostafin. 2013). Reward- Related Attentional Biases and Adolescent Substance use: The TRAILS Study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours, 27, 142-150. Wiers, R. W. , Bartholow, B. D. , Van Den-Wildenberg, E. , Thush, C. , Engels, R. , Sher, K. J. , Grenard, J. , Ames, S. L. , ; Stacy, A. W. (2007). Automatic and controlled processes and the development of addictive behaviors in adolescents: a review and a model. Pharmacol Biochem Behaviour, 86, 263–283. Zinberg, N (1986). Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis For Controlled Intoxicant Use, 10-11, Yale University Press.

Decision making Essay

Overview My experience in the business world has shown a variety of ethical decision making practices. The beauty industry has a somewhat skewed view of ethics as it appeals to the vanity and esteem of consumers around the world. The health care industry must provide health care to its customers yet maintain the business with the goals of making a profit. Yale University is known for its research in the fields of science and medical technology. All these companies practice ethics, but view ethical behavior in a different way. This paper will explore the definition and principles of ethics and discuss the impact of ethics on the decision making process in the work place. Definition Pearson Custom Publishing (Pearson, 1998-2002) defines ethics as the â€Å"standards of conduct and moral judgment. † Markula Center for Applied Ethics (1995-1998) defines ethics as those standards that compel one to refrain from committing crimes against another person such as stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. It is also the standards that encourage honesty, integrity, compassion and loyalty. Ethics is not a religious principle, nor is it based on â€Å"feelings† about a particular problem. It cannot be defined as a legal practice because laws are created to protect rights, not manage ethical principles. While the definition may seem clear, ethics as a practice is somewhat ambiguous since interpretation plays a big part in how people perceive right from wrong. The Markala Center for Applied Ethics (1995-1998) states that in order to understand the meaning of ethics we must find answers the following questions, â€Å"According to what standards are these actions right or wrong? What character traits (like honesty, compassion, fairness) are necessary to live a truly human life? † Defining ethics is relatively easy compared to practicing ethics in the work place. Since the primary concern of most businesses is the bottom line, the ethical views may differ based on the type of business. Ethical views of employees may also differ from the views of the company. This can cause conflict among workers and management as companies strive to improve the bottom line. Personal ethics may be compromised in an effort to keep a job. In business, what are the ground rules? Since ethics is not an exact science it is easy believe that if it is legal it is ethical and therefore acceptable. This is not always the case and recent examples of Enron and Microsoft prove this point. Enron has shown us that greed can interfere with good judgment and the impact of their decisions was grave. Microsoft is another company whose ethics have been questioned as it strives to maintain its place as the software giant. Is it unethical for Microsoft to work towards the demise of its competitor Netscape? Or is this the normal competitive spirit. Another good example is the beauty industry that built a billion dollar business convincing consumers that cosmetics and perfumes will make them perform better, become more powerful and/or more popular if the products are used. Is this behavior legal, yes. Ethical, well, that is questionable and based on personal interpretation. So how can ethical behavior be judged? Markala Center for Applied Ethics (1999) provides the following questions to help us more clearly ascertain ethical behavior. â€Å"Is there something wrong personally, interpersonally, or socially? Is there conflict that could be damaging to people?to animals or the environment? to institutions? to society? Does the issue go deeper than legal or institutional concerns? What does it do to people as persons who have dignity, rights, and hopes for a better life together? â€Å" These questions will help us to get the facts necessary to understand the problem, but we also need to know the values. Markula Center for Applied Ethics (1995-1998) suggests asking these additional questions to further determine values; â€Å"Is the solution to this problem for the common good of the community? Does it violate any rights? Is it fair and non-discriminatory? Will it benefit the majority of the people? † So when a problem occurs that requires a solution, it is necessary to review these questions and ask ourselves, based on a desired approach, if the outcome is ethical. This can be a difficult decision since often there is clearly no right or wrong answer. How could ethics benefit the decision making process? Incorporating ethics in the decision making process could making the process easier or more difficult. Easier by providing an additional layer that would justify a difficult decision based on whether it was ethically right or wrong. Ethics could make the decision making process easier by helping to eliminate choices that would not benefit all parties involved. For instance, let’s say there is a company who produces steel wires for construction projects. They need to build a larger factory in order to keep up with the demand. They are a fairly small operation, but complex in that they use dangerous chemicals in the finishing of their products. They have found a couple of locations which meet their needs; one in a location that is isolated a far from any residential areas, the other is located directly on a river that flows into a lake used for recreational purposes. The first location is considerably cheaper and would add an additional 30 minutes to the current employees commute. The second is closer and less expensive. In making the decision on where to build, management must consider the ethical ramifications to the environment. If they were to build near the river there would be a chance of chemical run off that would pollute the river and ultimately the lake. The use of ethics in the decision making process would make it easier to eliminate this location as an option and help to justify the additional expense and commute. Ethics could also make the decision making process harder by adding another layer of complexity to the problem. Take for instance, the issue of stem cell research. The research is performed on human embryos which some say is an unethical practice. Others say that using stem cells for research will make technological advances in medicine that cannot be achieved in other ways. These groups are opposed to the ban on federal funding for research that involved human embryo research (Coalition of Americans for Research Ethics). In the meantime, there are many diseases in which the cure points to more search in the area of stem cells. This research could help to save lives, but it is being held up due to the ethical beliefs of opposing parties. How should ethics be used in business? Ethical decision making should be a method by which decisions are made for the good of all people. Ethics should provide a code of behavior that is used as a base for all decision making. They should provide specific guidelines that ensure that decisions are always made in the interest of helping or protecting the rights of people. Many professional groups had specific practices by which they are expected to adhere as stated by Larry Colero of the U. B.C. Centre for Applied Ethics; â€Å"professional associations have codes of ethics that prescribe required behavior within the context of a professional practice such as medicine, law, accounting, or engineering. † These types of associations lay the ground rules in the decision making process. What are the ethical implications of the decision? Ethical implications in the decision making process could have a positive and negative outcome. I do believe that if a decision is not made in an ethical manner, the outcome will be negative. Using ethical decision making will most likely provide a positive outcome. Although it may not benefit the bottom line, it will surely benefit the community and the company long term. The negative implications come from situations where the decision is made without consideration for ethics. A sales person who is desperate to make quota for the quarter sells a product to the customer even though the customer does not need the product at this time. The customer may feel that the sales person does not have their best interest in heart and take their business elsewhere. Initially, the sales person benefited from an unethical decision, but in the long run, this type of decision making did not pay off. From a positive perspective, if the sales person had used ethical decision making, his sales may have increased not only through this one particular customer, but also from referrals due to the excellent customer service he/she had provided. Initially, the numbers may not have been satisfactory, but the long term results might have overcome the initial down turn. Conclusion Utilizing the principles of ethics in the decision making process will help to ensure that decisions made are fair and respect the rights of those parties involved. Unfortunately, ethical decision making is only as morally sound as the person making the decision. If the person making the decision is does not live by an ethical code, the decision will be swayed in the direction of that belief. Therefore, in order to make sound ethical decisions, decision makers must constantly evaluate their own beliefs and strive to live in an ethical manner. References Coalition of Americans for Research Ethics, (n. d. ), On human embryos and stem cell research: An appeal for legally and ethically responsible science and public policy. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: May 18, 2002 http://www. stemcellresearch. org/statement/statement. htm Colero, L. , (n. d. ) A framework for universal principles of ethics. Retrieved from the World Wide Web. May 18, 2002 http://www. ethics. ubc. ca/papers/invited/colero. html Pearson Custom Publishing, (1999-2002) Ethics. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: May 15, 2002 http://www. pearsoncustom. com/link/humanities/philosophy/crithink/ethics. html Markula Center for Applied Ethics, (1995-1998) A framework for ethical decision making. Retrieved from the World Wide Web. May 15, 2002. http://www. scu. edu/SCU/Centers/Ethics/practicing/deci3sion/framework. html.